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The least squares method is a technique used to find the best-fitting line for a set of data points. Suppose we are given pairs of values (x1, y1), (x2, y2), and so on, and we want to describe the relationship between x and y using a linear equation of the form y = ax + b. In most real-world situations, the points will not lie perfectly on a single line, so we measure the error at each point as the vertical difference between the actual value yi and the predicted value axi + b. The least squares method chooses the numbers a and b that make the total squared error as small as possible. We square the errors so that negative and positive differences do not cancel each other out and so that larger errors are penalized more heavily.
To find the best values of a and b, we form the sum of all squared errors and treat it as a function of these unknowns. We then minimize this function using calculus, which leads to a system of equations known as the normal equations. Solving this system gives formulas for the slope and intercept in terms of averages and sums computed from the data. Geometrically, the least squares solution can be understood as projecting the observed data onto the space of possible linear models. The method extends naturally to more complicated models, including polynomial regression and multiple regression, and it forms the foundation of many techniques in statistics, economics, and data science.
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Circle fit least squares is a method for finding the best-fitting circle to a set of data points in the plane. Given a collection of points, the goal is to find the center coordinates (a, b) and radius r that minimize some measure of how far the points deviate from the circle. The algebraic approach does this by minimizing the sum of squared algebraic residuals, which after a clever substitution of variables reduces to a standard linear least squares problem solvable by a 3x3 normal equation system. This linearization makes the method fast, simple to implement, and numerically stable.
The geometric approach instead minimizes the sum of squared perpendicular distances from each point to the circle’s boundary — that is, how far each point sits from the nearest point on the circle itself. This is the statistically correct formulation when measurement errors are spread equally in both coordinate directions, but it is nonlinear and requires iterative solvers like Levenberg-Marquardt. A common strategy is to use the algebraic solution as an initial guess and then refine it geometrically. The algebraic fit can be biased toward larger circles, so for precision applications such as experimental data fitting or metrology, the geometric fit is preferred despite its higher computational cost.
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